COMP3218 - Game Design and Development

Game Design Vocabulary

Game Engine: software application that hides technical implementation of the graphics rendering, sound reproduction, asset management, collision detection and physics simulation aspects of game development, allowing the developer to focus on the game logic and interaction

Scripts

• Start() - runs on the first frame
• Update() - runs at the start of every frame

• used for receiving input
• used for objects and variables
• used for timers

• FixedUpdate() - runs once, zero, or several times per frame depending on the framerate

• used for physics objects
  

Atoms of Game Design

Game design is influenced by many factors including:

• game state
• player
• avatar
• characters
• mechanics
• dynamics
• goals
• rules
• theme
• objectives
• procedures
• resources
• conflicts
• boundaries
• aesthetics
• interface
• rewards
• outcomes
• complexity
• difficulty
• story
• controls
  
• State and View

• Game State: known value of all variables determining the progress, positions, and flow
• Game View: how the player perceives the game state

• health bars
• currency
• menus
• inventory
• game board / map
  

• Players, Avatars, and Characters

• Player: human being interacting with the game
• Avatar: manifestation of the player
• Character: personality written and created in the game
  

• Mechanics, Dynamics, Systems, and Goals

• Mechanics: rules, equations, and algorithms behind a game
• e.g. points, achievements, status, levels, quests
• Dynamics: patterns of play emerging from mechanics
• e.g. appointment, feedback, progress, ability, strategy
• Systems: collections of mechanics and dynamics
• Goals: motivation to use dynamics
  

• Genre and Theme

• Genre: classification of the systems
• e.g. FPS, RPG, Racing
• Theme: classification of aesthetics, narrative, and content
• e.g. fantasy, simulation

  

Fullerton's Formal Elements

Fullerton's Formal Elements: model of eight mandatory elements which form the structure of games.

• Players

Players must interact with each other and usually win or lose. Many combinations of players and computers are possible.

• Objectives

Objectives are the motivation behind the dynamics.

• Capture: Players have to avoid getting captured or killed while destroying some opponent properties
• Chase: Players have to elude or catch an opponent
• Race: Players have to reach a goal before anyone else does
• Alignment: Players have to align their pieces in a spatial or conceptual configuration
• Rescue or Escape: Players have to get some defined units or items to safety without being compromised
• Forbidden Act: Players have to get the opponents to break the rules or to abandon a strategy
• Construction: Players have to construct, maintain, or manage game objects
• Exploration: Players have to explore unknown game areas
• Solution: Players have to solve a problem or puzzle
• Outwit: Players have to gain and use knowledge to outwit their opponents
  

• Procedures

Procedures are the actions or methods of play allowed by the game's rules. These can be instructions or controls specified to the player.

• Starting - how the game begins and sets up its environment
• Progression - ongoing procedures running during gameplay
• Special - actions only available based on the game state
• Resolving - actions which end the game and cause win or loss

• Rules

Rules define the game constraints, and describe what the player can and cannot do.

• Defining objects and conditions
• Restricting actions
• Determining effects
  

• Resources

Resources are game objects which have value for players and help them to reach their objectives. Designers control the scarcity and utility of objects.

• Durational

• lives, time, health

• Expendable

• units, currency, actions, inventory

• Enhancements

• powerups, stats
  

• Conflict

Conflict emerges through procedures and rules preventing the player from reaching their goal.

• Obstacles

• inhibitions to progress
• locked doors, walls

• Enemies

• players and NPCs
• bosses

• Dilemmas

• choices e.g. paths
• optimal solutions
  

• Boundaries

Boundaries are the restrictions in the game environment. Players will be restricted to certain actions or movements within map, field, board, or world.

• Outcomes

The outcome of a game is often measurable e.g. score and uneven e.g. one team/player wins. The goal is described by a set of conditions.

• rewards
• winning or losing
• user experience
• score/points
• achievements

  

The MDA Framework

  MDA (Mechanics-Dynamics-Aesthetics) Framework: framework defining and providing a formal representation of the three basic elements of game design

• Mechanics: rules, actions, interactions, algorithms, and data structures

• a game is modified by adding, removing, or changing mechanics
• mechanics affect the dynamics and aesthetics

• Dynamics: runtime behaviour of mechanics based on player input

• player inputs to control the mechanics
• e.g. A to jump
  
• how the mechanics are experienced
• e.g. jumps at speed x, falls at rate y, moves in an arc
  

• Aesthetics: emotional responses evoked in the player

• Sensation: player enjoys memorable audio-visual effects
• Fantasy: imaginary world
• Narrative: a story that drives the player to keep playing
• Challenge: urge to master a skill
• Fellowship: active community for players to join
• Discovery: urge to explore
• Expression: creativity and customisation
• Submission: connection to a game

Designing Mechanics

Mechanics are the rules, equations, and algorithms behind a game. Rules are used to control the game and simulate/approximate complex systems through the game engine.

   Rules share 6 common features:

1. rules limit player action
2. rules and explicit and unambiguous
3. rules are shared by all players
4. rules are fixed
5. rules are binding
6. rules are repeatable

Salen and Zimmerman's model separates game rules into 3 categories:

• Operational: formal attributes and statistics defining the game, frequently provided as written rules supplied in instruction booklets

e.g. players take turns to move pieces on the board
e.g. if players land on a property they may buy it
e.g. roll to hit first, then roll for damage

• Constitutive: underlying formal structures existing below the surface of rules presented to players

e.g. the game is played on an 8x8 grid
e.g. shortswords do 1d6 damage

• Implicit: unwritten rules concerning etiquette, sportsmanship, and implied behaviour

e.g. when touching a piece the player must move
e.g. beginner players may take back a move after playing
e.g. players must space themselves out around the board

Implicit rules emerge from operational rules which are informed by constitutive rules

  

Core Dynamics

Dynamics: runtime behaviour of mechanics based on player input

The Core Dynamic is the central dynamic in the game, and helps to build a coherent experience by anchoring the player to a major form of play. Without a core dynamic, the game's rules may appear confusing or poorly defined.

• Territorial Acquisition

• compete for a finite spatial resource
• e.g. Civilisation

• Prediction

• correctly guess an outcome
• can be statistical or empathetic
• e.g. Hearthstone, Rock-Paper-Scissors

• Spatial Reasoning

• solve a spatial pattern involving patterns or puzzles
• e.g. Tetris, Tic-Tac-Toe

• Survival

• struggle against fatal elements to stay alive
• e.g. Minecraft survival

• Destruction

• battle against opponents
• e.g. Doom, Overwatch, CSGO

• Building

• use building blocks to create something aesthetic
• e.g. Minecraft, SimCity, Catan

• Collection

• collect a resource or object
• e.g. Monopoly

• Chasing/Evading

• contest of navigation and pace with opponents
• e.g. Pac-Man

• Trading

• exchange resources for co-operation or to manipulate a deal
• e.g. Patrician

• Racing

• be the first to achieve a win state
• e.g. Mario Kart
   

Core dynamics are often related to fundamental human needs such as survival, collecting resources to survive, pattern recognition, and competition.

Interaction Design

• What does the player know about the game state?
• How can the player control the game state?
• What feedback does the player receive from the controls?

 Information Design

Information design concerns the amount of information given to the player and the way it is provided.

• For meaningful play, players need information which is used to make decisions
• Players should only have information on the game state which is relevant to the dynamics

• more information leads to better decision-making and strategy
• less information leads to statistical and risky gameplay

• Information can be provided in different ways
• HUD, attributes, cycles/turns
  
   
  

Control Design

Control design concerns the physical input and interactions with the game state.

• Controls can be direct or indirect

• Direct controls allow the player to change the game state in the way they desire

e.g. press space to shoot

• Indirect controls allow the player to change the game state to affect the system and cause changes

e.g. lower the price of an item to attract more customers and increase sales

Feedback Design

Feedback design concerns the changes in the game in response to control.

• Feedback can be reinforcing or balancing

• Reinforcing feedback encourages players into certain patterns of play
• Balancing feedback maintains the level of difficulty and challenge
  
   
  
   

Level Design

Space

• Level structure

• Linear: where tasks or rooms are visited sequentially

• Parallel: where tasks are completed sequentially, with different paths based on player decisions

• Network: where the player has the freedom to navigate between tasks or rooms in any order or combination

• Hub and Spoke: where players return to the hub environment after completing tasks

• Ring: where the player repeats the same tasks many times

• Open: where the player can explore the area freely

• Combination: combination of level structures put together

• Atmosphere

• aesthetics
• lighting
• colour palette
• weather
• objects
• visual effects
• sound effects, ambient audio, music
• content layers

 Progression

• Indicators show the player where they should go

• text
• colour
• lighting
• negative space
• landscapes, objects

• Obstacles can block the player from choosing certain paths

• keys and doors
• walls
• puzzles

Mechanics

Mechanics describe the rules and algorithms behind the system

• The player should know:

• the initial conditions
• the challenges they will face
• the termination conditions

• The game should provide feedback loops:

• positive feedback / rewards
• negative feedback / penalties
• imagination, skill, intelligence, and determination
  

• Mechanics Rules

• introduce features in order of general -> specialised
• allow optional tutorials
• allow the player to retry tutorials
• highlight UI features
• do not use blocks of text
• ensure players understand the tutorials
• turn off features until they are needed
  

• Mechanics Pitfalls

• Conceptual Non-Sequiturs: game elements which are not consistent with the game mechanics
• Poor Enemy AI: enemy AI should challenge the player, and have an appropriate difficulty
• Irrelevant Code: code should be reusable and fit together with other classes or functions
  

• Pacing

• replenish resources after consumption
• release features and mechanics
• allow levels with choice of difficulty
• allow optional levels
• allow alternate routes
• provide optional tutorials

 
 
Balance and Difficulty

Fairness

Fairness: quality of treating people equally, or in a way that is right and reasonable

• Player context

• in singleplayer - being right and reasonable
• in multiplayer - treating players equally

• PvP vs PVE

• a game must provide meaningful choices
• players must perceive the game to be fair
• chance should not outweigh player skill
• players should be 'reset' at certain points
• level of difficulty should be consistent
  

Balance

Balance: mathematical balance between players, game elements, actions, and relations within the game mechanics

Balance differs depending on the context:

• Singleplayer: whether the difficulty is appropriate for the audience, such that users of all abilities can play
• Multiplayer: whether all players have an equal chance of winning
• Strategy: whether all strategies have equal chances of success
• Objects: whether all objects have equal chances of producing benefits/rewards

 A dominant strategy is one which is much stronger than others, and is exploited to win the game. This causes players to avoid all other strategies, making the game unbalanced and meaningless. To avoid this, dominant features can be removed or changed, and counteractive strategies can be added. Developers should perform playtesting with a large sample size to identify dominant strategies.

Relationships

Transitive Relationship: relation where elements can be compared to all other elements

• Assuming there exist three elements a, b, and c
• If a > b and b > c
• Then a > c
  

Transitive relationships between strategies mean that certain strategies always have an advantage over others, making the game unbalanced. To fix this we can:

• Impose direct cost - certain items or actions have higher costs
• Impose shadow cost - certain items or actions have hidden costs or consequences

Intransitive Relationship: relation where elements can be compared to sequentially adjacent elements only

• Assuming there exist three elements a, b, and c
• If a > b and b > c
• Then a ≯ c

  Transitive                                          Intransitive

 

 Feedback Loops

Feedback design concerns the changes in the game in response to control.

• Positive Feedback

• gives advantages to winning players

e.g.items, tools, equipment, experience

• Negative feedback

• gives advantages to losing players

e.g. random respawns, health

 Positive                                   Negative

 

The snowball effect describes a situation where players gain feedback proportional to their ability. This causes good players to get better as positive feedback loops reward them, and bad players to get worse as negative feedback loops penalise them. This makes the game very predictable and unbalanced.

To control the snowball effect:

• adjust the reward given by positive feedback loops
• associate costs to items and actions
• allow players to work together against a common enemy
• introduce chance-based events
• 'reset' players at certain points

 Depth vs Complexity

 Depth: variation of experiences available from the mechanics

 Complexity: mental burden put on the player

• data to remember
• rules to process
• calculations to make
• actions on the interface

• Complexity enables depth, but too much complexity limits depth
• Aim for maximum depth and minimum complexity

• combine or reuse existing mechanics

 Flow

 Flow: balance between skill and difficulty which produces focus, control, and concentration

• flow aims to create immersion in a game
• flow increases the player's focus and concentration
  
   
  

Difficulty

Absolute Difficulty: difficulty of a challenge compared to a trivial baseline challenge

Relative Difficulty: absolute difficulty adjusted for power

Power: player's strength, stats, and abilities

Experience: practice the player has had on a particular challenge

  

Perceived Difficulty = relative difficulty - experience

   = absolute difficulty - power - experience

  
 Sawtooth levels ensure that difficulty rises for each level

 


 Interactive Narratives

 Narrative: spoken or written account of connected events

 Story: account of imaginary or real people and events told for entertainment

• The premise is a short story which establishes the action within a setting or metaphor and leads to emotional investment.

• The Magic Circle is a special space or frame of mind where the normal rules of the real world are suspended and replaced by the artificial reality of the game world.

Narratology

Narratives are split into three main layers:

Narrative Text: method of telling the story, e.g. book, film, game

Story: organisation of fabula elements in chronological order

Fabula: series of events, people, locations, and more, which make up the material of the narrative

 

 Stories

• Emergent

• Requires rich mechanics to produce a rich fabula

• no pre-planned structure
• Fabula and Story emerge from player actions
• limits repetition and randomness
• produces realistic events

• No narrator

• the player is the storyteller
• no guarantee of what the story will be

• Designed

• Story as a journey

• pre-planned structure
• story is modelled as a sequence of locations
• progress is maintained by limiting travel

• Story as a drama

• pre-planned structure
• story is modelled as a sequence of events
• player cannot always influence the direction of the story
  

The Story Engine is an interaction model showing the handling of inputs and outputs which control the story.

• takes player inputs as they progress through the story
• processes player events
• produces outputs depending on player input and events
• forms a cycle over time
  
• The Emergent Story Engine processes events only through core mechanics
• The Designed Story Engine processes events through core mechanics and the storytelling engine, which is triggered by certain inputs and produces narrative events

   Emergent Story Engine                                         Designed Story Engine
 

 Agency and Patterns

Agency: the ability to act or exert power

Mark Bernstein's Non-Linear Patterns is an analysis of structural patterns used by authors.

Choices

Choice: manifestation of agency

• Influences the narrative in several ways

• Intermediate - the player's choice is made at the point of branching
• Deferred - the player's choice is recorded and used later in the story
• Cumulative - the player's choices are fed into a model which influences a branch later in the story

• Allows players to overcome internal conflict

• Risk/Value decisions

• finding extra lives
• finding achievements
• doing side quests
• pursuing challenges

• Perks

• e.g. choosing between attack, defense, or stamina

• Moral and ethical judgements

• moral: internal values
• ethical: external values and rules

Narrative Paradox: conflict between the player's freedom of choice and the author's control over the world

• This is managed in several ways

• create an illusion of choice
• use cutscenes to remove agency
• use the physical space to encourage or restrict choices
• use cycles to return the story to the same state after each episode
• use splits/joins to restrict the exponential growth of branches
• use mirrorworlds to create alternate paths with the same assets

 

Writing Narratives

Story Arc: planned trajectory of a story, including the start, structure of events, and end

Modelling Story Arcs

The Three Act Arc divides a story into 3 acts.

• Dramatic Question

• A problem changes or affects the hero in a significant way. For example, Princess Peach is taken by Bowser.

• Acquisition of Means and Dramatic Reversal

• The character acquires the skills, allies, and equipment needed to solve the problem. A dramatic reversal occurs which hinders the plan. This act contains many conflicts and resolutions as drama slowly builds.

• Climax

• The drama reaches its peak as the hero uses their skills to solve the problem irreversibly. For example, Link fights Ganon.
  

The Hero's Journey is a story template where a hero goes on an adventure, is victorious in a crisis, and returns home with new skills. This is based on Campbell's 17 stages.

 1-3. The Beginning

• Call to Adventure

• An ordinary life is disturbed as the hero is sent away, given a goal, or understands something that changes their situation.

• Refusal of the Call

• The hero rejects the call, only to find this impossible or dangerous.

• Supernatural Aid

• The hero obtains help, support, or equipment needed to progress.
  

4-11. The Journey

• Crossing the Threshold

• The hero leaves the ordinary world and enters the adventure. This is often where the tutorial ends and the main game begins.

• Belly of the Whale

• The hero is forced to accept the path and reflects on their situation, themselves, and the path ahead.

• Road of Trials

• The hero is tested and must overcome a series of challenges.

• Meeting with the Goddess

• The hero comes to understand love (romantic or platonic) and grows beyond conflict and the trials.

• Temptation

• The hero overcomes a temptation to leave the journey.

• Atonement with the Father

• Reconciliation with a supreme being. The hero turns to other options as their main plan fails.

• Apotheosis

• The point of realization from which a greater understanding is achieved.

• Ultimate Boon

• The hero is reborn or gains a supernatural power, and the quest is completed.
  
    

12-17. The Return

• Refusal of Return

• The hero finds himself not wanting to leave.

• Magic Flight

• The hero escapes the boon to return to the regular world.

• Rescue from Without

• The hero receives help to return to ordinary life.

• Crossing the Return Threshold

• The hero returns to the other world.

• Master of Two Worlds

• The hero becomes a master of both worlds, and achieves spiritual balance.

• Freedom to Live

• Mastery leads to freedom from fear, and the hero is free to live without regret.
   

Pacing

Pacing is controlled in a number of narrative and mechanical methods.

• Narrative

• emotional scenes
• stirring music
• dramatic action

• Mechanical

• rapid decision making
• scarce resources
• increased conflict

The classic dramatic arc follows a premise leading to rising action, a climax, and a resolution.

 

 Dramatic curves can also be more complex with several peaks within the story.  

 

 Portnow states that pacing is recursive and repeats itself infinitely within games.

• Arc - the overall story (Mario goes on an adventure to rescue the princess)
• Scenes - individual encounters (mario defeats enemies to reach the flag)
• Actions - interactions with the player (mario jumps over a gap)

Pacing Techniques

• In Medias Res

• Means "in the middle of" and jumps the player straight into the action.

• Lepsis

• Where parts of the story are omitted or shown out of order.
  Prolepsis: flashforward or foreshadowing
  Analepsis: flashbacks

• Cutscenes, Cinematics, and In-Game Events

• Cutscene: control is removed from the player to convey a key part of the story
  Cinematic: pre-rendered or live-action video
  In-Game Event: inverted cutscene where the environment changes but not the player
  

Characters

Characters come in 3 main forms:

• Protagonists

• The hero, often the player's avatar

• Antagonists

• The villain, a central NPC who acts as an obstacle

• NPCs

• Mixture of allies, guides, neutrals, and enemies
  

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is useful for constructing personalities.

• Introversion vs Extroversion

• Strength from being alone or in crowds

• Sensing vs Intuition

• Trusting facts or gut feeling
  Thinking vs Feeling
• Making decisions logically or empathetically

• Judging vs Perceiving

• Liking resolution or open options
  

Characters tend to follow common archetypes:

• Protagonists
• The Classical Hero

• possesses a supernatural power, skill, or ability which rises them above regular people
• fails to bend the world to their desires, or has a hidden weakness
• power fantasies are common in games
• personal suffering makes the character feel human and relatable

• The Anti Hero

• rebellion against the classical hero with stronger flaws and mixed motivations
• has villainous traits like anger or aggression
• brooding, antsy, rebellious, self-destructive
• unconstrained by ethics or laws

• The Ordinary Hero

• ordinary person with no remarkable advantages or flaws
• initially is disempowered but grows to match a challenge
• very relatable for the player
  

• Antagonists
• Mechanical

• an evil character designed to make the player dislike them
• opposes the protagonists views or values
• appears big and powerful and is satisfying to defeat

• Narratological

• source of drama and conflict in the story
• evil stems from a motivation such as greed or revenge
• tightly linked to the protagonist

• Force of Nature

• drives the story as a primal concept
• often a monster, alien, or inhuman being
• is not relatable and has no flaws
• explores deep questions relating to their ideology
• can be a social commentary on society or institution
• tightly linked to the protagonist and the world

  

 Poetics of Game Narratives

 Narratology: study of narratives and their structure, function, and themes

 Ludology: study of games, gameplay, and players

Immersion

Immersion is determined by 3 factors:

• Sensory - physical feeling of being in the game world
• Challenge - cognitive involvement in a game
• Imagination - interest in the game characters and world
  
   
  
   

Poetics

Poetics is generally defined as the study of linguistic techniques in poetry and literature. In games, poetics is about how a game functions and comes together to produce an effect on the player.

Poetics can be supported using two approaches:  

• Emphasising the Fabula

• Reject the Grand Narrative Arc

• Setup: introduction of the premise, characters, and world
• Complication: introduces a challenge to the protagonist
• Development: the protagonist working towards a goal
• Resolution: the protagonist achieves victory
• Denouement: the story is concluded

• Embrace the Fabula

• Storyworld: the environment in which the game unfolds
• Characters: beings populating the world
• Emotion: feelings of characters and players
• Interface: way in which narrative is directed by the player
• Micro-Narratives: smaller parts of the story
  

• Fusion

• Embedded Narrative

• Diegetic: narrative told using standard mechanics existing in the world
• Extra-Diegetic: narrative told separately from the world using designed mechanics

• Thematic Coherence

• Consistent themes:

• Art
• Audio
• Music
• Writing
• Mechanics